Behaviour / Psychiatric / Violence / Risk Taking
 

Abel E. 1977. Psychol. Bull.84:193-261. (The relationship between cannabis and violence: A review.)

Amen DG, Waugh M. High resolution brain SPECT imaging of marijuana smokers with AD/HD. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 1998;30:209-214. (Studies on 30 heavy marijuana users with AD/HD shows marked decreased activity in the right and left temporal lobes. Age range 16-46 average 28.)

Andreasson S et al. Lancet 2:1483-1485, 1987. (Marijuana has long been known to trigger attacks of mental illness, such as bipolar [manic-depressive] psychosis and schizophrenia. It has been shown that marijuana users are six times more likely to develop schizophrenia than are non-users.)

Andreasson S, Allebeck P, Rydberg U. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1989;79:505-10. (Schizophrenia in users and nonusers of cannabis, a longitudinal study in Stockholm County.)

Barnet G, Licko V, Thompson T. 1985 Psychopharmacology 85: 51-56. (Behavioral pharmacokinetics of marijuana.)

Bell R, Wechsler H, Johnston LD. Correlates of college student marijuana use: results of a US national survey. Addiction 1997;92:571-581. (Marijuana use high among students who participate in high risk behaviors such as binge drinking, cigarettes, multiple sex partners, parties of importance.)

Bowman M., Pihl RO. 1973 Psychopharmacologia 29:159-170. (Cannabis: psychological effects

of chronic heavy use: a controlled study of intellectual functioning chronic users of high-potency cannabis.)

British Medical Association, Therapeutic Uses of Cannabis. 1997 p.71 ....."psychosis can be aggravated by some psychoactive cannabinoids."

Brook U. International Journal of the Addictions 1993 May;28(7):667-76. (High school pupils' attitude and experience with drugs in Holon, Israel.)

Brookoff D, Campbell EA, and Shaw LM. American Journal of Public Health. 1993;83:369-371. (The under reporting of cocaine-related trauma: drug abuse warning network reports vs. hospital toxicology tests.)

Brookoff D, O'Brien KK, Cook CS, Thompson TD, Williams C. Characteristics of Participants in Domestic Violence Cases. JAMA 1997; 277:1369-73. (92% of assailants had used alcohol or drugs the day of attack. 10% used marijuana)

Brownstein HH, Shiledar-Baxi H, Goldstein P, and Ryan P. 1992. J. Crime Justice 15:25-44. (The relationship of drugs, drug trafficking, and drug traffickers to homicide.)

Carney MWP, Bacelle L, Robinson B. Br. Med J 1984:288:104. Psychosis after cannabis use.

Center for Substance Abuse Research University of Maryland, College Park Oct.27,1997 Vol.6 Issue 42

( District of Columbia Pretrial Services Agency shows that 72% of juvenile arrestees tested positive for marijuana in August 1997)

Cherek D, and Steinberg J. 1987 Adv. Human Psychopharmacol. 4: 239-290. (Effects of drugs on human aggressive behavior.)

Cherek, DR. 1993 Psychopharmacology 111 : 163-168. (Smoking marijuana caused increased aggressive behavior in inner-city males.)

Cohen S. 1979 Drug Abuse Alcoholism Review 2: 1-13. (The effects of combined alcohol-drug abuse on human behavior.)

Dembo R, Washburn M, Wish B, Schmeidler I, Getreu A, Berry E, Williams L, and Blount W.

1987(a) J. Psychoactive Drugs 19: 361-373. (Further examination of the association between heavy marijuana use and crime among youths entering a juvenile detention center.)

Dembo R, Washburn M, Wish E, Yeung H, Getreu A, Berry E, and Blount W. 1987(b) J Psychoactive Drugs 19: 47-56. (Heavy marijuana use and crime among youths entering a juvenile detention center.)

Dembo R, Williams L, Wothke W, and Schmeidler J. 1992 Deviant Behavior 13:185-215. (Examining a structural model of the relationships among alcohol use, marijuana/hashish use, their effects and emotional and psychological problems over time in a cohort of high risk youths.)

Effect of Marijuana Decriminalization on Hospital Emergency Room Drug Episodes: 1975-1978. (Significantly higher number of DAWN [Drug Abuse Warning Network] marijuana episodes in states who had decriminalized marijuana.)

Fagan J. 1990 in M.Toery and J.Wilson (eds.) Drugs and Crime. Chicago: University of Chicago Press pp.241-320. (Intoxication and aggression.)

Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT, Horword LJ. New Zealand Medical Journal 1993 June 23;106(958):247-50. (Patterns of cannabis use among 13-14 year old New Zealanders).

Ford K, Norris A. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 1994 Apr;7(4):389-96 (Urban minority youth: alcohol and marijuana use and exposure to unprotected intercourse.)

Goldstein PJ, Lipton DS, Spunt BJ, Bellucci PA, Miller T, Cortez N, Khan M, and Kale A. 1987 (Drug Related Involvement in Violent Episodes (DRIVE). Interim Final Report to the National Institute on Drug Abuse.)

Goldstein PJ, Bellucci PA, Spunt BJ, Miller T, Cortez N, Khan M, Durrance R, and Vega A. 1988 (Female Drug Related Involvement in Violent Episodes [FEMDRIVE]. Final report to the National Institute on Drug Abuse.)

Goldstein PJ. 1989(a) In N.A. Weiner and M.E. Wolfgang (Eds.) Pathways to Criminal Violence. Beverly Hills, California. Sage Publications, pp.16-48. (Drugs and Violent Crime.)

Goldstein PJ, Brownstein HH, Ryan PJ, and Bellucci PA. 1989(b) Contemp. Drug Probl. 16(4): 651-687. (Crack and homicide in New York City, 1988: a conceptually based event analysis.)

Goldstein PJ, Brownstein H, Ryan P. 1992(a) (Drug related homicide in New York, 1984 and 1988 Crime Delinq. 38:459-476.)

Goldstein PJ, Brownstein HH, Spunt BI, and Fendrich M. 1992(b) (Drug Relationships in Murder [DREIM]. Final report to the National Institute on Drug Abuse.)

Gerston SP. J Clin Psychiatry 1980;41: 60-1. (Long-term adverse effects of brief marijuana usage.)

Hall W, Solowij N. Long term cannabis use and mental health. British Journal of Psychiatry. 1997;171:107-108. (Marijuana causes dependence, poor social outcomes in adolescents, impairs cognitive function, and at a minimum precipitates psychosis.)

Harrison P, Fulkerson J, Beebe T. Child Abuse and Neglect, 1997. 21(6): 529-539. "Multiple Substance Use Among Adolescent Physical and Sexual Abuse Victims" (Minnesota student survey finds link between physical/sexual victimization and multiple substance use. A history of physical/sexual abuse was also associated with an increased likelihood of multiple substance use among all grade levels.)

Jenike MA. Drug Abuse. In: Rubinstein E, Federman DD, eds, Scientific American Medicine, NY: Scientific American, Inc., 1993. (Marijuana causes many mental disorders, including acute toxic psychosis, panic attacks, flashbacks, delusions, depersonalization, hallucinations, paranoia, depression and "uncontrollable hostility".)

Kaplan HB, Martin SS, Johnson RJ, Robbins CA. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1986;27:44-61. (Escalation of marijuana use: Application of a general theory of deviant behavior.)

Knudsen P, Vilmar T. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1984; 69: 162-74. (Cannabis and neuroleptic agents in schizophrenia.)

Koukkou M, Lehmann D. Pharmacopsychiatry 1978;11:220-7 Correlations between cannabis-induced psychopathology and EEG before and after drug ingestion.

Kouri E, Pope H, Yurgelun-Todd D, Gruber S. Biol Psychiatry 1995; 38:475-481. Attributes of heavy vs. occasional marijuana smokers in a college population. (Heavy smokers higher rates of other drug use. Definition of heavy and light is questionable, high never smoked more than 10 times per month.)

Krahn D, Kurth C, Demitrack M, Drewnowski A. Journal of Substance Abuse 1992;4(4):341-53. (The relationship of dieting severity and bulimic behaviors to alcohol and other drug use in young women.)

Lacoursiere et al. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140:242-244, 1982. (Toxic psychosis produced by marijuana smoking while on Antabuse.)

Lex BW, Griffin ML, Mellow NK, Mendelson JH. International Journal of the Addictions. 1989;24:405-424. (Alcohol, marijuana, and mood states in young women.)

Linszen DH, Dingemans PM, Lenior ME. Schizophrenic disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51: 273-79. Cannabis abuse and the course of recent-onset. (Cannabis use found to increase frequency of relapse in patients with schizophrenia. In all but one of the patients cannabis use also preceded the onset of their first psychotic symptom.)

Martinez-Arevalo MJ, Calcedo-Ordonez A, Varo-Prieto JR. Alcobendas Mental Health Centre, Madrid, Spain. Br J Psychiatry, May 1994. Vol.164 pgs.679-681 Cannabis consumption as a prognostic factor in schizophrenia (Data were analyzed from 62 schizophrenia patients between 18 and 30 years of age, treated at the community mental health centres in Navarra, who had relapsed and then completed a one-year-follow-up study. Factors influencing the course of illness during follow-up were: continuing cannabis consumption; previous cannabis intake; non-compliance with treatment and stress.)

Mathers DC, Ghodse AH. British Journal of Psychiatry. 1992;161:648-653. (Cannabis and psychotic illness.)

Model KE. Journal of the American Statistical Association 1993; 88:737-747. The Effect of Marijuana Decriminalization on Hospital Emergency Room Drug Episodes: 1975-1978. (Significantly higher number of DAWN marijuana episodes in states who had decriminalized marijuana.)

Mueser KT, Yarnold PR, Bellack AS. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1992; 85: 48-55. (Diagnostic and demographic correlates of substance abuse in schizophrenia and major affective disorder.)

Nahas, C.G. Cannabis: Physiopathology, Epidemiology, Detection. CRC Press. 1993:95-99. (Historical outlook of the psychopathology of cannabis.)

National Institute on Drug Abuse. Rockville, Maryland: Pp. 136-159. (The drug use - violent delinquency link among adolescent Mexican-Americans.)

New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services. 1990 Male and Female Arrests for Violent Crimes since 1970.

Page JB, Fletcher J, True WR. 1988 J Psychoactive Drugs 20:57-65. (Psychosociocultural perspective on chronic cannabis use: the Costa Rican follow-up.)

Physicians' Desk Reference pp2076. Lapey, Janet D. MD. 1993. ("Marinol", which is THC, the main active ingredient in marijuana, causes "decreased ability to control drives and impulses.")

Poulton RG, Brooke M, Stanton WR, Silva PA. New Zealand Medical Journal 1997;110: 68-70. Prevalence and correlates of cannabis use and dependence in young New Zealanders. (Prevalence use DSM IIIR defined cannabis dependence assessed at age 18 and 21 increased from 6.6% for 18 to 9.6% at 21. Unemployment or violent behavior more frequent with cannabis use at age 21.)

Rajs, Prof. Jovan Dept. Of Forensic Med. Stockholm, Fugelstad, Anna, Psychologist, Psychiatric Dependency Clinic, St. Gorans Hosp., Stockholm. 28/11/1994 (People who have used cannabis on its own, without simultaneous consumption of other substances, have frequently died in connection with impulsive and unforseen acts of violence. The predominant form of death is suicide.)

Ryan P., Goldstein P., Brownstein H., and Bellucci P. 1990 in M. De La Rosa, E. Lambert and B. Gropper (eds.) Drugs and Violence: Causes, Correlates, and Consequences (research Monograph 103) Rockville, Maryland: National Institute on Drug Abuse pp.239-264. (Who's Right? Different outcomes when police and scientists view the same set of homicide events: New York.1988.)

Satz P., Fletcher JM., Sutker LL. 1976 Ann. NY Acad.Sci. 282:266-306. (Neuropsychologic, intellectual and personality correlates of chronic marijuana use in native Costa Ricans.)

Scherrer et al. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.184, No. 10. (Studied Antisocial Personality Disorder [ASP] in 1874 pairs of identical male twins. When twins were randomly selected, 8 out of 10 ASP symptoms were more prevalent in persons with lifetime history of marijuana use. Identical twins have the same genetic makeup. This study clearly shows that marijuana use is not an inherited weakness but that drug use causes antisocial personality traits and symptoms.)

Schwartz RH, Peary P, & Mistretta D. Amer. J. Dis. Child. 1986 140(4), 326. Intoxication of Young Children with Marijuana: A Form of Amusement for 'Pot' Smoking Teenage Girls. (This brief report discusses teenage baby-sitters who intoxicated young charges in their care by blowing marijuana smoke into their faces, noses or mouths, making them "high" on pot.)

Schwartz RH. Marijuana: an overview. Pediatric clinics of North America. 1987;34:305-317. (Poorly educated subjects or field hands, non peer reviewed journals, in one study- higher rates of absenteeism, delinquency, and reformatories in Costa Rica.)

Simeon DT, Bain BC, Wyatt GE, LeFranc E, Ricketts H, Chambers CC, Tucker MB. Characteristics of Jamaicans who smoke marijuana before sex and their risk status for sexually transmitted diseases. West Indies Medical Journal 1996;45:9. (Higher risk taking if marijuana smoked prior to sex and independent risk factor for STD.)

Simonds J, and Kashani J. 1980. Am. J. Drug and Alcohol Abuse 7:305-322. (Specific drug use and violence in delinquent boys.)

Soderstrom, CA, Smith GS, Dischinger PA, McDuff DR, Hebel JR, Gorelick DA, Kerns TJ, et al. Journal of the American Medical Association 1997;227:169-1774. (Psychoactive substance use disorders among seriously injured trauma center patients. 39.7% of patients had urine positive for drugs other than alcohol and nicotine. Lifetime [current] drug dependency rates were cocaine 16.4% [10.6%], marijuana 14.8% [6.5%], opiates 13.8% [10%], hallucinogens 2.3% [0.4%], stimulants 1.9% [0.3%].)

Solomons K, Neppe VM, Kuyl JM. SAMJ. 1990;78:476-481. (Toxic cannabis psychosis is a valid entity.)

Souief MI. 1976. Ann.NY Acad. Sci. 282:323-343. (Differential association between chronic cannabis use and brain function deficits.)

Spunt B, Goldstein P, Bellucci P, and Miller T. 1990(a) Adv. Alcohol Substance Abuse 9:81-99. (Drug relationships in violence among methadone maintenance treatment clients.)

Spunt B, Goldstein P, Bellucci P, and Miller T. 1990(b) J. Psychoactive Drugs 22:293-303. (Race / ethnicity and gender differences in the drugs-violence relationship.)

Spunt et al. International Journal of the Addictions, Vol. 29:195-213, 1994. The Role of Marijuana in Homicide. (In terms of life-time use, marijuana was reported to be the most common illicit drug used by a sample of 268 murderers incarcerated in New York State correctional facilities. About 25% of prisoners who had used marijuana, had used it in the 24 hour period before the homicide, and ¾ of those said they experienced some kind of effect from the drug when the homicide occurred.)

Spunt B, Brownstein HH, Crimmins SM, Langley S. Drugs and Homicide by Women. Substance Use and Misuse, 1996;31:825-845. (10% used pot on the day of homicide and 6% were under the influence.)

Szymanski HV. Prolonged depersonalisation after marijuana use. Am J Psychiatry 1981;138:231-3.

Tart CT. 1979. Nature 226: 701-704. (Marijuana intoxication: common experiences.)

Thomas H. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1996;42:201-207. A community survey of adverse effects of cannabis use. (22% reported panic or anxiety episodes and 15% reported psychotic events.)

Troisi A, Pasini A, Saracco M, Spalletta G. Psychiatric Symptoms in Male Cannabis Users Not Using Other Illicit Drugs. Addiction 1998; 93:487-492. (Comorbid psychiatric disorders prevalence: 83% with diagnosis of cannabis dependence, 46% with dx of cannabis abuse, and 29% with occasional cannabis use. Severity of depression and other symptoms increased progressively with the degree of involvement with cannabis. Chronic use was associated with a high prevalence of co-morbid psychiatric disorders.)

Tunving K. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1985; 72:209-17. Psychiatric effects of cannabis use.

Varma, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 21, pp. 147-152, 1988. (Psychological tests measuring intelligence, memory, and other mental functions, were given to 26 heavy cannabis users and compared to a control group. Heavy cannabis user - consuming cannabis for 5 years, 20 or more times per month, with daily intake equivalent to 150 mg of THC or 3 to 5 joints. Users react very slowly in performing motor tasks, suffered disability in personal, social and vocational areas, had higher scores for neurotic and psychotic behavior.)

Watts WD, and Wright L. 1990 In M. De La Rosa, E. Lambert, and B. Gropper (Eds.) Drugs and Violence. Causes, Correlates, and Consequences (Research Monograph 103)

Yamada T, Kendrix M, Yamada T. The Impact of Alcohol consumption and marijuana use on high school graduation. Health Economics 1996;5:77-92. (Adverse effects of alcohol and marijuana use on high school graduation. Incidence in frequent drinking, frequent marijuana use significantly reduce the probability of high school graduation. Drinking and marijuana are substitute activities.)

Zaretsky, Schizophrenia Research, Vol. 11, pp. 3-8, 1993. (Tardive dyskinesia is a condition in which abnormal involuntary movements develop, producing serious neurologic disability. Some patients treated for schizophrenia with drugs such as chlorpromazine, develop this serious condition as a side effect of therapy. A major risk factor for development of this complication of neuroleptic therapy is current or past use of cannabis.)
 

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